Arakkal Kingdom of India

Introduction

India's rich history is a tapestry woven with the stories of various dynasties and kingdoms, each with its unique legacy. Among the lesser-known yet fascinating chapters in Indian history is the Arakkal Kingdom. Situated in the picturesque Malabar Coast of Kerala, the Arakkal Kingdom stands as a testament to the region's cultural diversity and historical significance.

The Origins of Arakkal Kingdom

The Arakkal dynasty traces its roots to the 16th century when it was founded by Ali Raja, the nephew of the last Kolathiri King of Malabar. The kingdom's establishment was a result of Ali Raja's remarkable naval skills and his alliance with the British East India Company. This collaboration allowed the Arakkal rulers to maintain a degree of autonomy over their coastal territories while acknowledging British suzerainty.

List of notable rulers of the Arakkal Kingdom

There are various Ali Raja or Queen rules the Kigndom, here we have listed some of the rulers from history. 

1. Ali Raja Kunhi Amsa II (c. 1760–1782): Ali Raja Kunhi Amsa II was one of the prominent rulers of the Arakkal Kingdom. His reign was marked by significant achievements in trade and diplomacy.

2. Ali Raja Abdu Raja (c. 1782–1798): Ali Raja Abdu Raja succeeded Kunhi Amsa II and continued the kingdom's maritime activities and trade relations with various colonial powers.

3. Ali Raja Raja Raja (c. 1798–1825): Ali Raja Raja Raja, also known as Ali Raja Beevi, was a notable queen who ruled the Arakkal Kingdom during a significant part of the 19th century.

4. Ali Raja Kerala Varma (c. 1861–1900): Ali Raja Kerala Varma played a crucial role in the kingdom's relations with the British colonial authorities. His reign witnessed various changes and challenges.

5. Ali Raja Bibi Junumabe II (c. 1900–1911): Queen Ali Raja Bibi Junumabe II succeeded Kerala Varma and was known for her progressive outlook and efforts to promote education.

6. Ali Raja Beevi (c. 1911–1921): Another prominent queen, Ali Raja Beevi, ruled during a period of significant political and social changes.

7. Ali Raja Pathumma Beevi (c. 1921–1931): Ali Raja Pathumma Beevi's reign marked the later years of the Arakkal Kingdom as it faced external pressures from colonial powers and the changing political landscape.

8. Ali Raja Raja Ali (c. 1931–1946): Ali Raja Raja Ali, the last ruler of the Arakkal Kingdom, witnessed the integration of the kingdom into the Indian state of Kerala after India's independence in 1947.

Unique Matriarchal Succession

One of the most distinctive features of the Arakkal dynasty is its system of matriarchal succession. In a time when most Indian kingdoms followed male primogeniture, the Arakkal rulers passed the throne to the eldest female member of the family. This progressive practice set the Arakkal dynasty apart and has fascinated historians and sociologists alike.

Arakkal Queens

Several remarkable queens ruled the Arakkal Kingdom during its existence. Among them, Queen Aysha Bai is particularly renowned for her leadership and diplomatic skills. Her reign marked a period of stability and prosperity for the kingdom. The Arakkal queens played pivotal roles in trade, diplomacy, and the administration of their coastal realm.

Naval Prowess and Trade

The Arakkal rulers were known for their formidable naval forces. They controlled a powerful fleet that patrolled the Arabian Sea and protected their coastal territories from threats. The kingdom's strategic location on the Malabar Coast facilitated trade relations with various European powers, including the British, Portuguese, and Dutch. Spices, timber, and other valuable commodities were traded through the Arakkal ports, contributing to the region's economic growth.

Cultural Diversity and Syncretism

The Arakkal Kingdom was a melting pot of cultures and religions. Its population included Hindus, Muslims, Christians, and Jews, among others. This diversity led to a unique cultural syncretism, where traditions and festivals from different faiths coexisted harmoniously. The Arakkal rulers were known for their tolerance and support of various religious practices.

Decline and Integration

The decline of the Arakkal Kingdom began in the 19th century when it faced internal strife and external pressures from colonial powers. Eventually, in 1947, with India's independence, the kingdom was integrated into the newly formed Indian state of Kerala. The last ruler, Arakkal Mohammad Ali Raja, continued to be respected in the region for his efforts to promote education and social welfare.

Preserving the Legacy

Today, remnants of the Arakkal Kingdom's heritage can still be found in Kerala. The Arakkal Palace, located in Kannur, stands as a symbol of this once-great kingdom. It has been converted into a museum, showcasing artifacts, documents, and memorabilia from the Arakkal dynasty. The palace and museum provide a glimpse into the kingdom's history, its rulers, and the unique culture that thrived there.

Conclusion

The Arakkal Kingdom of India, with its matriarchal succession, naval prowess, and cultural diversity, remains a captivating chapter in the nation's history. It serves as a reminder of the intricate tapestry of India's past and the remarkable legacies left by its lesser-known dynasties. Exploring the Arakkal Kingdom offers a fascinating journey into a world where tradition and progress coexisted in harmony.

The Rise and Splendor of the Magadha Empire: Exploring its Origins, Rulers, and Territories

The Magadha Empire stands as a remarkable chapter in the annals of ancient Indian history. Nestled in the fertile Gangetic plains, this empire emerged as a powerhouse that shaped the political, cultural, and religious landscape of the region. Spanning several centuries, the Magadha Empire showcased a series of dynamic rulers, territorial expansions, and cultural contributions that left an indelible mark on India's historical tapestry.

The Genesis of Magadha

The roots of the Magadha Empire can be traced back to the 6th century BCE when it emerged as a small kingdom in the eastern part of present-day Bihar, India. With its strategic location along the banks of the Ganges River, Magadha attracted settlers and traders, laying the foundation for its eventual rise to prominence.

Early Rulers and Territorial Expansion

1. Bimbisara (543-491 BCE): Bimbisara is often considered one of the earliest rulers of the Magadha region. He expanded his territory through strategic alliances and military campaigns. His patronage of Buddhism also laid the groundwork for the region's spiritual and cultural growth.
   
   
2. Ajatashatru (491-461 BCE): The son of Bimbisara, Ajatashatru further expanded the kingdom's borders. His reign saw significant conflicts with neighboring states, including the formidable Vaishali Republic.
   
   
3. Mahapadma Nanda (c. 4th century BCE): Nanda, a contemporary of Alexander the Great, is believed to have unified the various territories of Magadha into a powerful empire. His rule marked the zenith of Magadha's territorial expansion.
   
   

The Mauryan Era and Chandragupta Maurya

The Magadha Empire reached its zenith under the Mauryan dynasty, which arose from the ambitious efforts of Chandragupta Maurya.

1. Chandragupta Maurya (322-298 BCE): Chandragupta Maurya established the Mauryan dynasty by overthrowing the Nanda rulers. His strategic brilliance enabled him to expand his empire across northern India, including the entire Gangetic plain. He is also renowned for his association with the scholar Chanakya, who played a pivotal role in shaping his policies.
   
   
2. Bindusara (298-273 BCE): Chandragupta's son Bindusara continued the empire's expansion southwards. He maintained friendly diplomatic ties with the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire.
   
   
3. Ashoka the Great (273-232 BCE): One of the most iconic rulers in Indian history, Ashoka transformed the Magadha Empire into a formidable and enlightened realm. His conversion to Buddhism and efforts to propagate non-violence have left an enduring legacy. Under his rule, the empire extended its influence as far as modern-day Afghanistan and Bangladesh.
   
   

Dynasties in Magadha Empire and Magadha rulers

The Magadha Empire, spanning several centuries and dynasties, was home to a succession of rulers who played pivotal roles in shaping its history and influence. While a comprehensive list of all kings of the Magadha Empire may not be exhaustive due to the limited historical records, here are some of the prominent kings and dynasties that ruled over Magadha:

1. Haryanka Dynasty:
   - Bimbisara (c. 543–491 BCE)
   - Ajatashatru (c. 491–461 BCE)
   - Udayin (c. 461–445 BCE)
   
   
2. Shishunaga Dynasty:
   - Shishunaga (c. 412–395 BCE)
   
   
3. Nanda Dynasty:
   - Mahapadma Nanda (c. 4th century BCE)
   - Dhana Nanda (c. 4th century BCE)
   
   
4. Mauryan Dynasty:
   - Chandragupta Maurya (c. 322–298 BCE)
   - Bindusara (c. 298–273 BCE)
   - Ashoka the Great (c. 273–232 BCE)
   - Dasaratha Maurya (c. 232–224 BCE)
   - Samprati (c. 224–215 BCE)
   - Shalishuka (c. 215–202 BCE)
   - Devavarman (c. 202–195 BCE)
   - Satadhanvan (c. 195–187 BCE)
   - Brihadratha (c. 187 BCE onwards)
   
   
5. Shunga Dynasty:
   - Pushyamitra Shunga (c. 185–149 BCE)
   - Agnimitra (c. 149–141 BCE)
   
   
6. Kanvas:
   - Vasudeva (c. 75–66 BCE)
   
   
7. Andhras:
   - Simuka (c. 1st century BCE)
   - Pulumavi (c. 1st century CE)
   - Yajnasri Satakarni (c. 2nd century CE)
   - Gautamiputra Satakarni (c. 2nd century CE)
   - Vasisthiputra Pulumavi (c. 2nd century CE)
   
   
8. Gupta Dynasty:
   - Chandragupta I (c. 320–335 CE)
   - Samudragupta (c. 335–375 CE)
   - Chandragupta II (c. 375–415 CE)
   
   

There might be some accuracy issue with dates here, since there is no much history present for ancient time.

Legacy and Concluding Thoughts

The Magadha Empire, with its remarkable rulers and expansive territories, left an indelible mark on India's history and culture. Its rise, characterized by strategic alliances, military conquests, and cultural exchange, paved the way for the subsequent dynasties that followed. The Mauryan era, in particular, showcased the zenith of Magadha's influence and territorial expanse, with Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka emerging as iconic figures whose legacies continue to inspire generations. The rise and fall of the Magadha Empire exemplify the ebb and flow of power, the dynamics of conquest, and the enduring impact of cultural and philosophical contributions. As we delve into the annals of history, the Magadha Empire stands as a testament to the resilience, vision, and achievements of an ancient civilization that continues to shape the contours of modern India.

Please note that historical records from ancient times can be fragmented, and the accuracy of specific dates and reigns may vary. The list above highlights some of the significant rulers of the Magadha Empire and subsequent dynasties that held sway over the region.

Tryst with Destiny speech, Jawaharlal Nehru, 15 August 1947

At midnight of 15th August 1947, Leader of Indian national congress (INC) and first prime minster of India addressed our nation with this strong, beautiful and mature speech.

“Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance. It is fitting that at this solemn moment, we take the pledge of dedication to the service of India and her people and to the still larger cause of humanity. ”

—Tryst with Destiny speech, Jawaharlal Nehru, 15 August 1947

Mughal Empire, chapter II

 Mughal Empire - II

1. The Second Battle of Panipat marked the real beginning of the Mughal Empire in India. Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun and captured Delhi.
2. Bairam Khan remained the protector and guardian of Akbar during the initial reign of Akbar.
3. Akbar’s mother Hamida Banu Begum, and his foster mother Maham Anaga urged Akbar to get rid of the Regent, Bairam Khan. In 1560, Akbar openly expressed his desire to take the regions of the empire in his own hands and dismissed him.
4. Bairam Khan submitted his resignation and desired to proceed to Mecca. On his way to Mecca, Bairam was stabbed to death by Lohani Afghan, whose father had been killed by Mughal troops under the command of BairamKhan.
5. Akbar followed a policy of conquest for the expansion of his empire until the capture of Asirgarh
6. In January 1601. He achieved the political unification of the whole of northern and central India by frequent annexations extending over 40 years.
7. Akbar realised the value of Rajput alliance in his task of building up an Empire in India and tried, as far as possible, to conciliate the Rajputs and secure and ensure their active cooperation in almost all activities. The Empire of  Akbar can be said to be an outcome of the coordination of  Mughal prowess and diplomacy and Rajput valour and service.
8. Mewar, however, gave stiff resistance to Mughal forces. Rana Sanga, the ruler of Mewar, kept the torch of independence burning. However, after his death, his weak son, Uday Singh, could not hold against the Mughals and Akbar finally besieged the fort of Chittor in October 1567.But, the victory did not come his way easily. Rana Sanga’s brave followers,  Jaimnall and Patta, gave stiff resistance. The entire garrison, to the last man, died fighting. The Rajput women performed the rite of  Jauhar.
9. Victory at Chittor resulted in other Rajput chiefs to submit to Akbar. But Mewar continued to defy. Uday Singh continued to retain his independence even after losing the capital. After his death, Mewar found a true leader in RanaPratap.
10. The imperial invasion of territory of Rana Pratap took place in April 1576, under troops commanded by ManSingh, the ruler of Amber, and Asaf Khan. A furious battle was fought at the pass of Haldighati.
11. Rana Pratap was defeated by the Mughal forces. His life was, however, saved by the selfless devotion of the chief of Jhala, who drew upon himself the attack of Mughal forces by declaring himself to be the Rana. Rana mounted his favorite horse Chetak and fled to the hills, from where he continued his resistance to the Mughal forces and also managed to recover some of the lost territory. Rana Pratap’s son tried to continue the resistance after his father’s death but was finally defeated in 1599 by Mughal forces led by Man Singh.
12. After annexing Ranthambhor and Kalinjar in 1569,the Mughals subjugated Gujarat. In 1572, Akbar marched in person against Gujarat and defeated all opposition.
13. Gujarat turned out to be one of the most profitable sources of income for the Mughal empire, chiefly through the re-organisation of its finances and revenues by TodarMal.
14. In 1585, Kabul was formally annexed to the Delhi Empire after the death of Mirza Muhammad Hakim,
15. Step- brother of Akbar who governed Kabul as an independent ruler.
16. Bhagwan Das and Kasim Khan were deputed by Akbar to conquer Kashmir. They defeated its Sultan YusufShah in 1586 and annexed Kashmir to the Empire.
17. By 1595, Akbar made himself undisputed ruler of an area extending from Hindukush to Brahamputra, and from Himalayas to the Narmada.
18. With an ideal of an all-India Empire, Akbar sought to bring the Deccan Sultanates, Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Golkunda and Khandesh under his hegemony. He also wanted to utilize his control over Deccan as means of pushing the Portuguese to the sea. Thus, his Deccan policy was purely imperialistic in origin and outlook and not influenced by religious considerations, as was the case with Shah Jehan and Aurangzeb.
19. Akbar sent a large army under Bairam Khan’s son Abdur Rehman and his second son Prince Murad
20. to annex Ahmadnagar. The city was besieged in 1595, but not before splendid courage and extraordinary resolution shown by Chand Bibi, a queen of Bijapur. Under a treaty with ChandBibi, Berar was ceded to Akbar’s forces and the boy king of Ahmadnagar agreed to the overlordship of Akbar. The kingdom could be annexed to the empire only during the reign of Shah Jehan.
21. In July 1599, Akbar himself marched to the south and captured Burhanpur, the capital of Khandesh
22. and laid siege to the mighty fortress of Asirgarh. Akbar seduced the Khandesh officers by money to get the doors of the fort opened. This was the last conquest of Akbar.
23. In 1601, Akbar returned to Agra to deal with his rebellious son Salim.
24. On October 17, 1605 Akbar died following severe dysentery. His mausoleum is located at Sikandra.
25. Akbar observed the external forms of the Sunni faith until 1575, when his association with Shaikh Mubarak and his two sons, Faizi and Abul Fazal, produced change in his views.
26. Akbar got a building called Ibadat-Khana or the House of Worship constructed at Fatehpur Sikri,
27. with a view to discussing philosophical and theological questions.
28. Hari Vijaya Suri, Vijaya Sen Suri and BhanuchandraUpadhaya were prominent Jain teachers who were called by Akbar to attend the philosophical and theological discussions.
29. Akbar floated a new religion, called Din-i-Ilahi,  based on his discussions with people of different religions.
30. Akbar abolished the pilgrim tax in the eighth year of his reign, and the jaziya in the ninth year.
31. Aweek after Akbar’s death, Salim succeeded to the throne of Agra and assumed the title of
32. Nur-ud-dinMohammed Jahangir Padshah (Emperor) Ghazi (Holy warrior).
33. Five months after his accession to the throne, Jahangir faced rebellion by his son Khusrav. The Prince and his troops were defeated by the Mughal army near Jalandhar and Khusrav was captured along with his principal followers, Husain Beg and Abdul Aziz.
34. The fifth Sikh Guru, Arjan Dev was sentenced to death by Jahangir for helping Prince Khusrav with a sum of money. The execution of Guru Arjan Dev estranged the Sikhs, till then a peace-loving community, and turned the minto foes of the Mughal Empire.
35. In May 1611, Jahangir married Noor Jahan, originally known as  Mihir-ul-nisa. The emperor, who styled himself Nor-ud-din, conferred on his new wife the title of Noor Mahal (Light of the palace), which was soon changed to Noor Jahan (Light of the world). She was the daughter of Mirza Ghiyas Beg, a Persian adventurer.
36. Jahangir was known to have had several secret love affairs with the ladies of the court. One famous love of Jahangir was Anarkali, for whom he raised a beautiful marble tomb at Lahore.
37. The most distinguished triumph of Mughal imperialism during the reign of Jahangir was its victory over the Rajputs of Mewar.
38. In the Deccan, war dragged on throughout his reign against the kingdom of Ahmadnagar. The kingdom of Ahmadnagar was then served by its Abyssinian minister Malik Ambar, one of the greatest statesmen that Medieval India produced.
39. Apartial success was gained by Mughals in 1616,when Prince Khurram captured Ahmadnagar and some other strongholds. For this victory Khurram was rewarded by his father with the title of Shah Jehan
40. (King of the world).
41. The first serious disaster of the Mughal empire during the reign of Jahangir was loss of Kandhar. Deceiving the Mughal officers by gifts, Shah Abbas, one of the greate strulers of Asia in his time, besieged Kandhar in 1621, and finally took it in June 1622.
42. Shah Jehan revolted against Jahangir with help of Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, an officer in the Mughal court. He was, however, defeated by Mughal forces led by Mahabat Khan, at Balochpur, near Delhi, in 1623. Shah Jehan was then chased from province to province and finally, in 1625, he reconciled with his father and retired to Nasik with his wife Noor Jahan, a niece of Mumtaz Mahal, and youngest son Murad. His other sons, Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb, were sent to the imperial court, probably to serve as hostages to ensure his good behavior.
43. The success of Mahtab Khan excited the jealousy of Noor Jahan and this hostility drove him to rebellion. Mahtab Khan took Jahangir as prisoner on the banks of Jhelum, while the emperor was on his way to Kabul. However, Jahangir managed to escape from prison and went to Rohtas where troops loyal to him had collected in a large force. Mahtab Khan ultimately made peace with Jahangir, but this triumph remained short-lived as Jahangir died on October27, 1627. His body was buried in a beautiful tomb at
44. Shahdara, near Lahore, on the banks of Ravi.
45. Jahangir had a Chain of Justice, bearing sixty bells,fastened between the Shah Bhurj in the Agra fort and a poston the road, near the bank of Yamuna. The chain could be shaken by the humblest of his subjects to bring their grievances to his notice.
46. The Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (Memoirs of Jahangir) is a brilliant proof of his literary attainments.
47. Himself a painter, Jahangir was a patron of art and literature and a lover of nature.
48. Jahangir made no departure from his father’s policy of admitting Hindus to the higher public service. Man Singh, Kalyan Singh, son of Todar Mal, and Vikramadit were three  Hindu governors during his reign.
49. Jahangir also tried to control the practice of sati among Hindus. He passed orders that Hindu widows should not be compelled to become sati without his government’s permission. He also tried to put a stop to female infanticide.
50. Jahangir was fond of the company of the Vaishnavaleader Jadurup and held many discussions with him at Ujjain and Mathura, as a result of which he came to the conclusion that Hindu Vedanta and Muslim Sufism were almost identical.
51. Jahangir was usually liberal and tolerant towards all religions, but at times sanctioned repressive measures against Muslim heretics. Shaikh Rahim of Lahore, who was a religious leader of a sect, was imprisoned in the fortress of Chunar. Qazi Nurullah was put to death on account of being a notable Shia writer. Shaikh Ahmad Sarhindi Wasim prisoned in the fortress of Gwalior, but was released later and sent back to Sarhind with gifts.

Highest and Longest In India

Highest and Longest In India
Highest Award In India	Bharat Ratna
Highest Gallantry Award	Param Vir Chakra
Longest River in India	The Ganges
Longest Tributary river of India	Yamuna
Largest Lake	Wular Lake, Kashmir
Largest Lake (Saline Water)	Chilka Lake, Orrisa
Largest Man-Made Lake	Govind Vallabh Pant Sagar (Rihand Dam)
Largest Fresh Water Lake	Kolleru Lake (Andhra Pradesh)
Highest Lake	Devtal Lake, Gadhwal (Uttarakhand)
Highest Lakein Indai	Devatal (Gharhwal)
Highest Peak	Karkoram-2 of K-2(8,611 meters) Highest Peak in the world is Mount Everest which is in Nepal
Largest Populated City	Mumba, Maharastra
Largest State(Area)	Rajasthan
Largest State(Population)	Uttar Pradesh
Highest rainfall	Cherrapunhi (426 inches per annum)
Highest Watefallin India	Nohkalikai Falls (335 meters, 1100 ft high) in Shora
State wise largest area under forest	Madhya Pradesh
Largest Delta	Sunderbans Delta
Largest River without Delta	Narmada and Tapti
Longest Cantilever Span bridge	Howrah Bridge
Longest River Bridge	Mahatma Gandhi Setu, Patna
Biggest Cave temple	Ellora
Longest Road in India	Grand Trunk Road
Highest Road in India	Road at Khardungla,(in Leh-Manali Sector)
Biggest Mosque	Jama Masjid at Delhi
Highest Gateway	Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri (53.6 meters high)
Tallest Statue	Statue of Gomateshwar (17 meters high In Karnataka
Largest Public Sector Bank	State Bank of India
Longest Canal	Indira Gandhi Canal or Rajasthan Canal (Rajasthan)
Largest Dome	Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur
Largest Zoo	Zoological Garden at Alipur (Kolkata)
Largest Museum	India Museum at Kolkata
Longest Dam	Hirakud Dam (Orrisa)
Highest Dam	Tehri Dam ( 260 meters , 850 ft )
Highest Tower	Kutab Minar at Delhi (88.4 meters high)
Largest Desert in India	Thar (Rajasthan)
Largest District	Kutch district
Fastest Train	Shatabadi Express running between New Delhi and Bhopal
State with longest coastline	Gujarat
State with longest coastline of South India	Andhra Pradesh
Longest Electric Railway Line	From Delhi to Kolkata via Patna
Longest Railway Route	From Assam to Kanyakumari
Longest Railway Platform	Kharagpur (W. Bengal)
Highest Railway Station	Ghum (W. Bengal)
Longest Platform	Kharagpur (West Bengal) 833 meters in Length. It is also the longest railway station in world
Longest Tunnel	Jawahar tunnel (Jammu & Kashmir)
Longest Highway	NH-44 (NH-7) which turns from Varanasi to Kanyakumari
Smallest State (Population)	Sikkim
Smallest State (Area)	Goa
Largest State (Area)	Rajasthan
Largest State (Population)	Uttar Pradesh
Densest Populated State	West Bengal
Largest Cave	Amarnath (J&K)
Largest Cave Temple	Kailash Temple, Ellora (Maharastra)
Largest Animal Fair	Sonepur (Bihar)
Largest Auditorium	Sri Shanmukhanand Hall (Mumbai)
Biggest Hotel	Oberai-Sheraton (Mumbai)
Largest Port	Mumbai
Largest Gurudwara	Golden Temple, Amritsar
Deepest River Valley	Bhagirathi & Alaknanda
Largest Church	Saint Cathedral (Goa)
Oldest Church	St. Thomas Church at Palayar, Trichur (Kerala)
Longest River	Ganga (2640 km long)
Longest Beach	Marina Beach, Chennai
Highest Battle Field	Siachin Glacier
Highest Airport	Leh (Laddakh)
Biggest Stadium	Yuva Bharti (Salt Lake) Stadium, Kolkata
Largest River Island	Majuli (Brahmaputra River, Asom)
Largest Planetarium	Birla Planetarium (Kolkata)
Sambhar lake	Largest inland salt lake

Constitution on India - All Articles

Constitution on India - All Articles

PART I

THE UNION AND ITS TERRITORY

ARTICLES

  1.           Name and territory of the Union.

  2.           Admission or establishment of new States.

2A.          [Repealed.]

  3.           Formation of new States and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing  States.

  4.           Laws made under articles 2 and 3 to provide for the amendment of the First and the Fourth Schedules and supplemental,

                incidental and consequential matters.

PART II

CITIZENSHIP

  5.           Citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution.

6.          Rights of citizenship of certain persons who have migrated to India from Pakistan.

  7.           Rights of citizenship of certain migrants to Pakistan.

8.          Rights of citizenship of certain persons of Indian origin residing    outside India.

9.          Persons voluntarily acquiring citizenship of a foreign State not to be citizens.

10.           Continuance of the rights of citizenship.

11.           Parliament to regulate the right of citizenship by law.

PART III

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

General

12.           Definition.

13.           Laws inconsistent with or in derogation of the fundamental rights.

Right to Equality

14.          Equality before law.

15.            Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.

16.            Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment.

17.            Abolition of Untouchability.

18.            Abolition of titles.

                                                                               

Right to Freedom

19.            Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech, etc.

20.            Protection in respect of conviction for offences.

21.            Protection of life and personal liberty.

21A.         Right to education.

22.            Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.

Right against Exploitation

23.            Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour.

24.            Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc.

Right to  Freedom of Religion

25.            Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion.

26.            Freedom to manage religious affairs.

27.            Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion.

28.            Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational institutions.

Cultural and Educational Rights

29.            Protection of interests of minorities.

30.            Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions.

31.            [Repealed.]

Saving of Certain Laws

31A.         Saving of Laws providing for acquisition of estates, etc.

31B.         Validation of certain Acts and Regulations.

31C.         Saving of laws giving effect to certain directive principles.

31D.         [Repealed.]

Right to Constitutional Remedies

 32.           Remedies for enforcement of rights conferred by this Part.

    32A.          [Repealed.]

 33.           Power of Parliament to modify the rights conferred by this Part in their application to Forces, etc.

 34.           Restriction on rights conferred by this Part while martial law is in force in any area.

 35.           Legislation to give effect to the provisions of this Part.

                PART IV

DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY

  36.          Definition.

  37.          Application of the principles contained in this Part.

  38.          State to secure a social order for the promotion of welfare of the people.

  39.          Certain principles of policy to be followed by the State.

39A.         Equal justice and free legal aid.

  40.          Organisation of village panchayats.

  41.          Right to work, to education and to public assistance in certain cases.

  42.          Provision for just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief.

  43.          Living wage, etc., for workers.

43A.         Participation of workers in management of industries.

  44.          Uniform civil code for the citizens.

  45.          Provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years.

  46.          Promotion of educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other weaker sections.

  47.          Duty of the State to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health.

  48.          Organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry.

48A.         Protection and improvement of environment and safeguarding of forests and wild life.

  49.          Protection of monuments and places and objects of national importance.

  50.          Separation of judiciary from executive.

  51.          Promotion of international peace and security.

PART IVA

FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES

51A.         Fundamental duties.

PART V

THE UNION

CHAPTER I. THE EXECUTIVE

The President and Vice-President

52.            The President of India.

53.            Executive power of the Union.

54.           Election of President.

55.           Manner of election of President.

56.            Term of office of President.

57.           Eligibility for re-election.

58.           Qualifications for election as President.

59.           Conditions of President’s office.

60.           Oath or affirmation by the President.

61.           Procedure for impeachment of the President.

62.           Time of holding election to fill vacancy in the office of President and the term of office of person        

              elected to fill casual vacancy.

63.           The Vice-President of India.

64.           The Vice-President to be ex officio Chairman of the Council of States.

65.           The Vice-President to act as President or to discharge his functions during casual vacancies in the office, or during the absence, of President.

66.           Election of Vice-President.

67.            Term of office of Vice-President.

68.            Time of holding election to fill vacancy in the office of Vice-President and the term of office of person elected to fill casual vacancy.

69.            Oath or affirmation by the Vice-President.

70.            Discharge of President’s functions in other contingencies.

71.            Matters relating to, or connected with, the election of a President or Vice-President.

72.            Power of President to grant pardons, etc., and to suspend, remit or commute sentences in certain cases.

73.            Extent of executive power of the Union.

                 Council of Ministers

74.            Council of Ministers  to aid and advise President.

75.            Other provisions as to Ministers.

                 The Attorney-General for India

76.            Attorney-General for India.

                 Conduct of Government Business

77.            Conduct of business of the Government of India.

78.            Duties of Prime Minister as respects the furnishing of information to the President, etc.

                CHAPTER  II. PARLIAMENT

General

79.            Constitution of Parliament.

80.            Composition of the Council of States.

81.            Composition of the House of the People.

82.            Readjustment after each census.

83.            Duration of Houses of Parliament.

84.            Qualification for membership of Parliament.

85.            Sessions of Parliament, prorogation and dissolution.

86.            Right of President to address and send messages to Houses.

87.            Special address by the President.

88.            Rights of Ministers and Attorney-General as respects Houses.

               

Officers of Parliament

89.            The Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the Council of States.

90.            Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the office of Deputy Chairman.

91.            Power of the Deputy Chairman or other person to perform the duties of the office of, or to act as, Chairman.

92.            The Chairman or the Deputy Chairman not to preside while a resolution for his removal from office is under consideration.

93.            The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the House of the People .

94.            Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker.

95.            Power of the Deputy Speaker or other person to perform the duties of the office of, or to act as, Speaker.

96.            The Speaker or the Deputy Speaker not to preside while a resolution for his removal from office is under consideration.

97.            Salaries and allowances of the Chairman and Deputy Chairman and the Speaker and Deputy Speaker.

98.            Secretariat of Parliament.

               

Conduct of Business

 99.           Oath or affirmation by members.

100.          Voting in Houses, power of Houses to act notwithstanding vacancies and quorum.

               

Disqualifications of Members

101.          Vacation of seats.

102.          Disqualifications for membership.

103.          Decision on questions as to disqualifications of members.

    104.           Penalty for sitting and voting before making oath or affirmation under article

                99 or when not qualified or when disqualified.

Powers, Privileges and Immunities of Parliament and its Members

105.          Powers, privileges, etc., of the Houses of Parliament and of the members and committees thereof.

106.          Salaries and allowances of members.

Legislative Procedure

107.          Provisions as to introduction and passing of Bills.

108.          Joint sitting of both Houses in certain cases.

109.          Special procedure in respect of Money Bills.

110.          Definition of “Money Bills”.

111.          Assent to Bills.

                

Procedure in Financial Matters

112.          Annual financial statement.

113.          Procedure in Parliament with respect to estimates.

114.          Appropriation Bills.

115.          Supplementary, additional or excess grants.

116.          Votes on account, votes of credit and exceptional grants.

117.          Special provisions as to financial Bills.

Procedure Generally

118.          Rules of procedure.

119.          Regulation by law of procedure in Parliament in relation to financial business.

120.          Language to be used in Parliament.

121.          Restriction on discussion in Parliament.

122.          Courts not to inquire into proceedings of Parliament.

CHAPTER III.¾LEGISLATIVE  POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT

123.          Power of President to promulgate Ordinances during recess of  Parliament.

CHAPTER IV.¾ THE UNION JUDICIARY

124.         Establishment and constitution of Supreme Court.

125.         Salaries, etc., of Judges.

126.         Appointment of acting Chief Justice.

127.         Appointment of ad hoc judges.

128.         Attendance of retired Judges at sittings of the Supreme Court.

129.         Supreme Court to be a court of record.

130.         Seat of Supreme Court.

131.         Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.

131A.       [Repealed.]

132.         Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in appeals from High Courts in certain cases.

133.         Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in appeals from High Courts in regard to Civil matters.

134.         Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in regard to criminal matters.

134A.       Certificate for appeal to the Supreme Court.

135.         Jurisdiction and powers of the Federal Court under existing law to be exercisable by the Supreme Court.

136.         Special leave to appeal by the Supreme Court.

137.         Review of judgments or orders by the Supreme Court.

138.         Enlargement of the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.

139.         Conferment on the Supreme Court of powers to issue certain writs.

139A.       Transfer of certain cases.

140.         Ancillary powers of Supreme Court.

141.         Law declared by Supreme Court to be binding on all courts.

142.         Enforcement of decrees and orders of Supreme Court and orders as to discovery, etc.

143.         Power of President to consult Supreme Court.

144.         Civil and judicial authorities to act in aid of the Supreme    Court.

144A.       [Repealed.]

145.         Rules of Court, etc.

146.         Officers and servants and the expenses of the Supreme Court.

147.         Interpretation.

CHAPTER V.¾ COMPTROLLER AND AUDITOR-GENERAL OF INDIA

148.         Comptroller and Auditor-General of India.

149.         Duties and powers of the Comptroller and Auditor-General.

150.         Form of accounts of the Union and of the States.

151.         Audit reports.

PART VI

THE STATES

CHAPTER I.¾ GENERAL

152.         Definition.

CHAPTER II.¾ THE EXECUTIVE

The Governor

153.         Governors of States.

154.         Executive power of State.

155.         Appointment of Governor.

156.         Term of office of Governor.

157.         Qualifications for appointment as Governor.

158.         Conditions of Governor’s office

159.         Oath or affirmation by the Governor.

160.         Discharge of the functions of the Governor in certain contingencies.

161.         Power of Governor to grant pardons, etc., and to suspend, remit or commute sentences in certain cases.

162.         Extent of executive power of State.

                 Council of Ministers

163.         Council of Ministers to aid and advise Governor.

164.         Other provisions as to Ministers.

                 The Advocate-General for the State

165.         Advocate-General for the State.

                 Conduct of Government Business

166.         Conduct of business of the Government of a State.

167.         Duties of Chief Minister as respects the furnishing of information to Governor, etc.

               

CHAPTER III. THE STATE LEGISLATURE

General

168.          Constitution of Legislatures in States.

169.          Abolition or creation of Legislative Councils in States.

170.          Composition of the Legislative Assemblies.

171.          Composition of the Legislative Councils.

172.          Duration of State Legislatures.

173.          Qualification for membership of the State Legislature.

174.          Sessions of the State Legislature, prorogation and dissolution.

175.          Right of Governor to address and send messages to the House or Houses.

176.          Special address by the Governor.

177.          Rights of Ministers and Advocate-General as respects the Houses.

Officers of the State Legislature

178.          The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly.

179.          Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the offices of Speaker  and Deputy Speaker.

180.          Power of the Deputy Speaker or other person to perform the duties of the office of, or to act as, Speaker.

181.          The Speaker or the Deputy Speaker not to preside while a resolution for his removal from office is under consideration.

182.          The Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the Legislative Council.

183.          Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the offices of Chairman and Deputy Chairman.

184.          Power of the Deputy Chairman or other person to perform the duties of the office of, or to act as, Chairman.

185.          The Chairman or the Deputy Chairman not to preside while a resolution for his removal from office is under consideration.

186.          Salaries and allowances of the Speaker and Deputy Speaker and the Chairman and Deputy Chairman.

187.          Secretariat of State Legislature.

Conduct of Business

188.          Oath or affirmation by members.

189.          Voting in Houses, power of Houses to act notwithstanding vacancies and quorum.

Disqualifications of Members

190.          Vacation of seats.

191.          Disqualifications for membership.

192.          Decision on questions as to disqualifications of members.

193.          Penalty for sitting and voting before making oath or affirmation under article 188 or when not qualified or when disqualified.

Powers, privileges and immunities of State Legislatures and their Members

194.          Powers, privileges, etc., of the Houses of Legislatures and of the members and committees thereof.

195.          Salaries and allowances of members.

Legislative Procedure

196.          Provisions as to introduction and passing of Bills.

197.          Restriction on powers of Legislative Council as to Bills other than Money Bills.

198.          Special procedure in respect of Money Bills.

199.          Definition of “Money Bills”.

200.          Assent to Bills.

201.          Bills reserved for consideration.

Procedure in Financial Matters

202.          Annual financial statement.

203.          Procedure in Legislature with respect to estimates.

204.          Appropriation Bills.

205.          Supplementary, additional or excess grants.

206.          Votes on account, votes of credit and exceptional grants.

207.          Special provisions as to financial Bills.

Procedure Generally

208.          Rules of procedure.

209.          Regulation by law of procedure in the Legislature of the State in relation to financial business.

210.          Language to be used in the Legislature.

211.          Restriction on discussion in the Legislature.

212.          Courts not to inquire into proceedings of the Legislature.

CHAPTER IV.¾- LEGISLATIVE  POWER OF THE GOVERNOR

213.          Power of Governor to promulgate Ordinances during recess of Legislature.

CHAPTER V.¾-THE  HIGH COURTS IN THE STATES

214.          High Courts for States.

215.          High Courts to be courts of record.

216.          Constitution of High Courts.

217.          Appointment and conditions of the office of a Judge of a High Court.

218.          Application of certain provisions relating to Supreme Court to High Courts.

219.          Oath or affirmation by Judges of High Courts.

220.          Restriction on practice after being a permanent Judge.

221.          Salaries, etc., of Judges.

222.          Transfer of a Judge from one High Court to another.

223.          Appointment of acting Chief Justice.

224.          A  ppointment of additional and acting Judges.

224A.       Appointment of retired Judges at sittings of High Courts.

225.          Jurisdiction of existing High Courts.

226.          Power of High Courts to issue certain writs.

226A.       [Repealed..]

227.          Power of superintendence over all courts by the High Court.

228.          Transfer of certain cases to High Court.

228A.       [Repealed.]

229.          Officers and servants and the expenses of High Courts.

230.          Extension of jurisdiction of High Courts to Union territories.

231.          Establishment of a common High Court for two or more States.

                 CHAPTER VI¾SUBORDINATE COURTS

233.          Appointment of district judges.

233A.       Validation of appointments of, and judgments, etc., delivered by, certain district judges.

234.          Recruitment of persons other than district judges to the judicial service.

235.          Control over subordinate courts.

236.          Interpretation.

237.            Application of the provisions of this Chapter to certain class or classes of magistrates.

               

PART VII

THE STATES IN PART B OF THE FIRST SCHEDULE

238.          [Repealed.]

                PART VIII

THE UNION TERRITORIES

239.          Administration of Union territories.

239A.       Creation of local Legislatures or Council of Ministers or both for certain Union territories.

239A.       Special provisions with respect to Delhi.

239AA.         Provision in case of failure of constitutional machinery.

239AB.          Power of administrator to promulgate Ordinances during recess of Legislature.

240.          Power of President to make regulations for certain Union territories.

241.          High Courts for Union territories.

242   .       [Repealed.]

                                                                               

PART IX

THE PANCHAYATS

   243.       Definitions.

  243A.     Gram Sabha.

  243B.     Constitution of Panchayats.

  243C.     Composition of Panchayats.

  243D.     Reservation of seats.

  243E.     Duration of Panchayats, etc.

  243F.      Disqualifications for membership.

 243G.      Powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats.

 243H.      Powers to impose taxes by, and Funds of, the Panchayats.

 243-I.      Constitution of Finance Commission to review financial position.

 243J.       Audit of accounts of Pachayats.

243K.       Elections to the Panchayats.

243L.       Application to Union  territories.

243M.      Part not to apply to certain areas.

243N.       Continuance of existing laws and Panchayats.

243-O   .   Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters.

               

PART IXA

THE MUNICPALITIES

243P.        Definitions.

243Q.       Constitution of Municipalities.

243R.       Composition of Municipalities.

243S.        Constitution and composition of Wards Committees, etc.

243T.       Reservation of seats.

243U.       Duration of Municipalities, etc.

243V.       Disqualifications for membership.

243W.      Powers, authority and responsibilities of Municipalities, etc.

243X.       Power to impose taxes by, and Funds of, the Municipalities.

243Y.       Finance Commission.

243Z.              Audit of accounts of Municipalities.

243ZA.          Elections to the Municipalities.

243ZB.          Application to Union territories.

243ZC.          Part not to apply to certain areas.

243ZD.          Committee for district planning.

243ZE.          Committee for Metropolitan planning.

243ZF.           Continuance of existing laws and Municipalities.

243ZG.          Bar to interference by Courts in electoral matters.

 PART X

              THE SCHEDULED AND TRIBAL AREAS

  244.        Administration of Scheduled Areas and Tribal Areas.

244A.      Formation of an autonomous State comprising certain tribal areas in Assam and creation of local Legislature or Council of Ministers or both therefor.

               

PART XI

RELATIONS BETWEEN THE UNION AND THE STATES

CHAPTER I.¾LEGISLATIVE  RELATIONS

Distribution of Legislative Powers

  245.        Extent of laws made by Parliament and by the Legislatures of States.

  246.        Subject-matter of laws made by Parliament and by the Legislatures of States.

  247.        Power of Parliament to provide for the establishment of certain additional courts.

  248.        Residuary powers of legislation.

  249.        Power of Parliament to legislate with respect to a matter in the State List in the national interest.

  250.        Power of Parliament to legislate with respect to any matter in the State List if a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation.

  251.        Inconsistency between laws made by Parliament under articles 249 and 250 and laws made by the Legislatures of States.

   252.       Power of Parliament to legislate for two or more States by consent and adoption of such legislation by any other State.

   253.       Legislation for giving effect to international agreements.

   254.       Inconsistency between laws made by Parliament and laws made by the Legislatures of States.

   255.       Requirements as to recommendations and previous sanctions to be regarded as matters of procedure only.

CHAPTER II.¾ ADMINISTRATIVE RELATIONS

General

  256.        Obligation of States and the Union.

  257.        Control of the Union over States in certain cases.

257A.       [Repealed.]

 258.         Power of the Union to confer powers, etc., on States in certain cases.

258A.       Power of the States to entrust functions to the Union.

259.          [Repealed.]

260.          Jurisdiction of the Union in relation to territories outside India.

261.          Public acts, records and judicial proceedings.

                 Disputes relating to Waters

262.          Adjudication of disputes relating to waters of  inter-State rivers or river valleys.

                 Co-ordination between States

263.          Provisions with respect to an inter-State Council.

               

PART XII

FINANCE, PROPERTY, CONTRACTS AND SUITS

CHAPTER I.¾FINANCE

General

264.          Interpretation.

265.          Taxes not to be imposed save by authority of law.

266.          Consolidated Funds and public accounts of India and of the States.

267.          Contingency Fund.

Distribution of Revenues between the Union and the States

268.          Duties levied by the Union but collected and appropriated by the State.

268A.       Service tax levied by Union and collected by the Union and the States.

269.          Taxes levied and collected by the Union but assigned to the States.

270.          Taxes levied and  distributed between the Union and the States.

271.          Surcharge on certain duties and taxes for purposes of the Union.

272.          [Repealed.]

273.          Grants in lieu of export duty on jute and jute products.

274.          Prior recommendation of President required to Bills affecting taxation in which States are interested.

275.          Grants from the Union to certain States.

276.          Taxes on professions, trades, callings and employments.

277.          Savings.

278.          [Repealed.]

       279.        Calculation of  “net proceeds”, etc.

   280.       Finance Commission.

   281.       Recommendations of the Finance Commission.

                 Miscellaneous financial provisions

   282.       Expenditure defrayable by the Union or a State out of its revenues.

   283.       Custody, etc., of Consolidated Funds, Contingency Funds and moneys credited to the public accounts.

   284.       Custody of suitors’  deposits and other moneys received by public servants and courts.

   285.       Exemption of property of the Union from State taxation.

   286.       Restrictions as to imposition of tax on the sale or purchase of goods.

   287.       Exemption from taxes on electricity.

   288.       Exemption from taxation by States in respect of water or electricity in certain cases.

   289.       Exemption of property and income of a State from Union taxation.

   290.       Adjustment in respect of certain expenses and pensions.

   290A.    Annual payment to certain Devaswom Funds.

   291.       [Repealed.]

CHAPTER II.¾ BORROWING

   292.       Borrowing by the Government of India.

293.      Borrowing by States.

               

CHAPTER III.¾ PROPERTY, CONTRACTS, RIGHTS, LIABILITIES,        

OBLIGATIONS AND SUITS

   294.       Succession to property, assets, rights, liabilities and obligations in certain cases.

   295.       Succession to property, assets, rights, liabilities and obligations in other cases.

   296.       Property accruing by escheat or laps or as bona vacantia.

   297.       Things of value within territorial waters or continental shelf and resources of the exclusive economic zone to vest in the Union.

   298.       Power to carry on trade, etc.

   299.       Contracts.

   300.       Suits and proceedings.

CHAPTER IV.¾ RIGHT  TO PROPERTY

  300A.     Persons not to be deprived of property save by authority of law.

               

PART XIII

TRADE, COMMERCE AND INTERCOURSE WITHIN

THE TERRITORY OF INDIA

   301.       Freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse.

   302.       Power of Parliament to impose restrictions on trade, commerce and intercourse.

  303.        Restrictions on the legislative powers of the Union and of the States with regard to trade and commerce.

  304.        Restrictions on trade, commerce and intercourse among States.

  305.        Saving of existing laws and laws providing for State monopolies.

  306.        [Repealed.]

  307.        Appointment of authority for carrying out the purposes of articles 301 to 304.

               

PART XIV

SERVICES UNDER THE UNION AND THE STATES

CHAPTER I.¾ SERVICES

  308.        Interpretation.

  309.        Recruitment and conditions of service of persons serving the Union or a State.

  310.        Tenure of office of persons serving the Union or a State.

  311.        Dismissal, removal or reduction in rank of persons employed in civil capacities under the Union or a State.

  312.        All-India services.

312A.       Power of Parliament to vary or revoke conditions of service of officers of certain services.

  313.        Transitional provisions.

  314.        [Repeated.]

CHAPTER II.—PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSIONS

  315.        Public Service Commissions for the Union and for the States.

  316.        Appointment and term of office of members.

  317.        Removal and suspension of a member of a Public Service Commission.

  318.        Power to make regulations as to conditions of service of members and staff of the Commission.

  319.        Prohibition as to the holding of offices by members of Commission on ceasing to be such members.

  320.        Functions of Public Service Commissions.

  321.        Power to extend functions of Public Service Commissions.

  322.        Expenses of Public Service Commissions.

  323.        Reports of Public Service Commissions.

     

     PART XIVA

TRIBUNALS

323A.       Administrative tribunals.

323B.       Tribunals for other matters.

              PART XV

            ELECTIONS

  324.        Superintendence, direction and control of elections to be vested in an Election Commission.

  325.        No person to be ineligible for inclusion in, or to claim to be included in a special, electoral roll on grounds of religion, race, caste or sex.

  326.        Elections to the House of the People and to the Legislative Assemblies of States to be on the basis of adult suffrage.

  327.        Power of Parliament to make provision with respect to elections to Legislatures.

  328.        Power of Legislature of a State to make provision with respect to elections to such Legislature.

  329.        Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters.

329A.       [Repealed.]

               

PART XVI

SPECIAL PROVISIONS RELATING TO CERTAIN CLASSES

  330.        Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the House of the People.

  331.        Representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the House of the People.

  332.        Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative Assemblies of the States.

  333.        Representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the Legislative Assemblies of the States.

  334.        Reservation of seats and special representation to cease after seventy years.

  335.        Claims of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to services and posts.

  336.        Special provision for Anglo-Indian community in certain services.

  337.        Special provision with respect to educational grants for the benefit of Anglo-Indian Community.

  338.        National Commission for Scheduled Castes.

338A.       National Commission for Scheduled Tribes.

  339.        Control of the Union over the Administration of Scheduled Areas and the welfare of Scheduled Tribes.

    340.      Appointment of  a Commission to investigate the conditions of backward classes.

    341.      Scheduled Castes.

    342.      Scheduled Tribes.

PART XVII

OFFICIAL LANGUAGE

CHAPTER I.—LANGUAGE OF THE UNION

  343.        Official language of the Union.

  344.        Commission and Committee of Parliament on official language.

CHAPTER II.¾ REGIONAL LANGUAGES

  345.        Official language or languages of a State.

  346.        Official language for communication between one State and another or between a State and the Union.

  347.        Special provision relating to language spoken by a section of the population of a State.

                CHAPTER III.¾LANGUAGE OF THE SUPREME COURT,

HIGH COURTS, ETC.

  348.        Language to be used in the Supreme Court and in the High Courts and for Acts, Bills, etc.

  349.        Special procedure for enactment of certain laws relating to language.

CHAPTER IV.¾-SPECIAL DIRECTIVES

  350.        Language to be used in representations for redress of grievances.

     350A.       Facilities for instruction in mother-tongue at primary stage.

350B.       Special Officer for linguistic minorities.

  351.        Directive for development of the Hindi language.

               

PART XVIII

EMERGENCY PROVISIONS

  352.        Proclamation of Emergency.

  353.        Effect of Proclamation of Emergency.

  354.        Application of provisions relating to distribution of revenues while a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation.

  355.        Duty of the Union to protect States against external aggression and internal disturbance.

  356.        Provisions in case of failure of constitutional machinery in States.

  357.        Exercise of legislative powers under Proclamation issued under article 356.

  358.        Suspension  of provisions of article 19 during emergencies.

  359.        Suspension of the enforcement of the rights conferred by Part III during emergencies.

359A.       [Repealed.]

      360.         Provisions as to financial emergency.

PART XIX

MISCELLANEOUS

  361.        Protection of President and Governors and Rajpramukhs.

361A.       Protection of publication of proceedings of Parliament and State Legislatures.

361B.       Disqualification for appointment on remunerative political post.

  362.        [Repealed.]

  363.        Bar to interference by courts in disputes arising out of certain treaties, agreements, etc.

363A.       Recognition granted to Rulers of Indian States to cease and privy purses to be abolished.

  364.        Special provisions as to major ports and aerodromes.

  365.        Effect of failure to comply with, or to give effect to, directions given by the Union.

  366.        Definitions.

  367.        Interpretation.

                PART XX

AMENDMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION

368.       Power of Parliament to amend the Constitution and procedure therefor.

               

PART XXI

TEMPORARY, TRANSITIONAL AND

SPECIAL PROVISIONS

  369.        Temporary power to Parliament to make laws with respect to certain matters in the State List as if they were matters in the Concurrent List.

  370.        Temporary provisions with respect to the State of Jammu and Kashmir.

  371.        Special provision with respect to the States of Maharashtra and Gujarat.

 371A.      Special provision with respect to the State of Nagaland.

 371B .     Special provision with respect to the State of Assam.

 371C.      Special provision with respect to the State of Manipur.

 371D.      Special provisions with respect to the State of Andhra Pradesh.

 371E.      Establishment of Central University in Andhra Pradesh.

 371F.       Special provisions with respect to the State of Sikkim.

 371G.      Special provision with respect to the State of Mizoram.

 371H.      Special provision with respect to the State of Arunachal Pradesh.

 371-I.      Special provision with respect to the State of  Goa.

 372.         Continuance in force of existing laws and their adaptation.

 372A.      Power of the President to adapt laws.

 373.         Power of President to make order in respect of persons under preventive detention in certain cases.

 374.         Provisions as to Judges of the Federal Court and proceedings pending in the Federal Court or before His    Majesty in Council.

  375.        Courts, authorities and officers to continue to function subject to the provisions of the Constitution.

  376.        Provisions as to Judges of High Courts.

  377.        Provisions as to Comptroller and Auditor-General of India.

  378.        Provisions as to Public Service Commissions.

378A.       Special provision as to duration of Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly.

 379-391.       [Repealed.]

  392.        Power of the President to remove difficulties.

                PART XXII

SHORT TITLE, COMMENCEMENT, AUTHORITATIVE TEXT

IN HINDI AND REPEALS

  393.        Short title.

  394.        Commencement.

394A.       Authoritative text in the Hindi language.

  395.        Repeals.

SCHEDULES

FIRST SCHEDULE 

      I. —The States.

     II. —The Union territories.

SECOND SCHEDULE                      

     PART A— Provisions as to the President and the Governors of States.

     PART B— [Repealed.]

PART C—   Provisions as to the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of   the House of  the    People   and the Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of   the Council   of      States   and   the  Speaker  and  the  Deputy Speaker  of  the   Legislative Assembly and the Chairman  and the Deputy Chairman of the Legislative  Council of a State.  

PART D—  Provisions as to the Judges of the Supreme Court and of the High Courts.

PART E—  Provisions as to the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India.

THIRD  SCHEDULE— Forms of Oaths or Affirmations.

FOURTH  SCHEDULE—

Allocation of seats in the Council of States.

FIFTH SCHEDULE—

Provisions as to the Administration and Control of Scheduled  Areas and Scheduled Tribes

     PART A—General.

      PART B—Administration and  Control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes.

      PART C— Scheduled Areas.

      PART D—Amendment of the Schedule.

SIXTH SCHEDULE—

Provisions as to the Administration of Tribal Areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.

SEVENTH SCHEDULE—

      List I — Union List.

      List II— State List.

      List III— Concurrent List.

EIGHTH SCHEDULE— Languages.

NINTH SCHEDULE—Validation of certain Acts and Regulations.

TENTH SCHEDULE— Provisions as to disqualification on ground of defection.

ELEVENTH SCHEDULE— Powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats.

TWELFTH SCHEDULE— Powers, authority and responsibilities of Municipalities, etc.

APPENDIX

APPENDIX   I—The Constitution (Application to Jammu and Kashmir) Order, 1954.

APPENDIX II— Re-statement, with reference to the present text of the Constitution, of the exceptions and

                       modifications subject to which the Constitution applies to the State of Jammu and Kashmir.

APPENDIX  III—Extracts from the Constitution (Forty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1978

APPENDIX  IV— The Constitution (Eighty-eighth Amendment) Act, 2003.